Follow the links below to check out the latest articles by Chief Joe Pronesti from Elyria Fire Department (OH). Part one and two of “Reminders on Main Street.’’ (Shared with the Chief’s permission.)
Back to Main Street: Five Reminders When Facing Main Street Fires
Back to Main Street: Five More Reminders When Facing Main Street Fires
Be sure to check out Fire Engineering’s other resources as well.
Follow the link below to check out Chris’ latest article on Firefighter Nation on what it means to do an “aggressive interior fire attack.”
Be sure to check out their other resources as well.
Chris and Lex talk with Corely Moore on Firehouse Vigilance about about all things building construction, from main street, to suburbia and everything in between.
https://podbay.fm/p/the-weekly-scrap/e/1612321200
Lex talks with David Mellen of Valor Fire Training on building construction, fire prevention, firemanship, and equality in the fire service.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mebye3lq8bs
Chris talks with Corely about social media in the fire service and the future of Fire Conferences and what Chris believes they will look like moving forward.
https://podbay.fm/p/the-weekly-scrap/e/1585717200
Lex talks with the Average Jake Firefighter Podcast on everything from building construction to fitness.
Chris talks with the guys from Due Work Podcast on “aggressive firemanship.”
Lex and Scott Orr discuss the use of the word “firemen” in the fire service, and why she prefers it.
https://code3podcast.com/2020/01/firemen-even-if-theyre-women-with-alexis-shady/
“Humpday Hangout” on Fire Engineering. Chris, Frank Ricci, and “RJ” James discuss search tactics.
https://www.fireengineering.com/firefighting/humpday-hangout-search-tactics/#gref
“The Anatomy of Building Construction” with Lex, hosted by the Central Ohio Fools.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdmMtAou3s8
“The Art of Truckmanship” with Chris, hosted by the Central Ohio Fools.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WdgJJLvqpFs
Lex talks with Joe Pronesti about how to navigate the maze of information in the fire service.
https://www.fireengineering.com/podcasts/podcast-main-street-firefighting-march-2020/
Chris talks with Dr. Rich Gasaway of SAMatters on the “Mindset of Aggressiveness.
https://www.samatters.com/284/?utm_campaign=meetedgar&utm_medium=social&utm_source=meetedgar.com
Lex talks with Brian and Kara of “The Professional Brotherhood” podcast on being a student of the job.
Scott Orr and Chris discuss the “state of the fire service” and having an “old school attitude.”
https://code3podcast.com/2018/08/old-school-attitude-with-chris-tobin/
Chris Tobin
Go to any large Midwestern city and take a drive down an alley, what you’ll see is an architectural feature colloquially known as the “Chicago Lumberyard”. A term that reflects the prevalence of rear multi level wooden porches extending as far as the blocks they’re built in. The wooden alley porches you see today were commonly built between 1900-1940 out of functionality more than convenience. Some offered stairs doubling as fire escapes while some did not. Before modern air conditioning, open porches offered relief during the oppressive humidity of Midwestern summers. The only other option was sleeping outside or in parks. Another common function of rear porches was a place for wood stoves and kerosene heating which just added to an increased fire hazard. Porches were naturally built off of the kitchen which allowed for easy access of fuel delivery for cooking as well as ice for those who could afford it.
Today’s rear porches come in two types, open with handrails and fully enclosed framed with windows. Most do not have porch stairs and may instead have a rear stairwell on the first floor accessed through a back door, especially in four family flats. Treated pine is the most common construction material due to its rot resistance, but over time structural integrity is slowly comprised. Modern uses of rear porches can vary greatly from social gathering places, storage, office space, and bedrooms. Typically vinyl siding has been added over the older exterior which can be anything from asbestos siding shingles to era wood siding. All these will require aggressive truck work to overhaul working concurrently with fire attack. Another feature is that the basement stairs are typically right under the 1st floor porch, so don’t automatically assume a porch fire started on the porch. Be sure to rule out a basement fire extending upward on arrival with an effective 360 size up.
Tactical considerations are similar to the principles of exposure protection since rear porches in Type lll’s will be separated by the rear brick wall. This offers a level of protection from fire spread into the cockloft, but enclosed porches are often stacked combustible construction. So you have rapid exterior fire spread to every level of the building from one source, which can extend horizontally into the dwelling on multiple levels at once. Life safety is the number one priority, especially potential victims that may be trapped above the 1st floor. Hose lines must be stretched to the proper location the first time saving costly delays in repositioning. There are many options for deployment depending on your resources and conditions.
The basic strategy here is confinement by holding the rear wall, thus keeping the fire out of the main building while searches are conducted. Since porches are in the rear you have to weigh your options when deploying hose lines. Is stretching down the gangway for exterior application going to be quicker than forcing entry with an uncharged line to an upper floor? Does an engine company respond to the rear? How about tandem lines? One goes inside to stop horizontal extension, and one to the rear to stop vertical extension lapping upwards to the roofing material additionally available to protect adjacent exposures. Traditionally the first line went to the fire floor and the second went to the floor above. All these have to be considered. If people are reported trapped the first line must go inside and hold extension at the rear wall putting water in between tenable spaces supporting a rescue effort. If there are rear interior stairs those have to be protected as well.
If your staffing is unable to stretch multiple lines quickly and must rely on only one, err on the side of probability and make entry knowing most porch fires start on the inside and typically have no doors to slow fire spread. Tenable space must be claimed early on and with expedience. Any fire attack that starts outside must have the manpower and second line ready for almost concurrent entry or you risk delaying actual extinguishment of interior spaces for exterior ones that pose less threat to valuable property and possible victims inside. Additionally re-stretching and repositioning a charged line back to the front and possibly up stairs is extremely laborious, even more so in an already understaffed situation.
Interior operations need to be cognizant of the transition between the legacy floor of the main building and lighter weight decking of a porch. The collapse potential increases with porches made of modern floor decking such as plywood covered in tile which presents a “terrazzo floor” effect. Weight is also a factor due to aging structural supports not originally designed for a fully framed room with contents. It’s not uncommon to find holes burned through right inside the porch entryway. Anyone advancing the nozzle shouldn’t enter a porch if they can’t assess its integrity. Sounding the floor decking with your heel of your outstretched foot or a hand tool is paramount. Let the stream do the work until visibility increases and operate from the building side of the rear wall if the floor is comprised.
Master stream options are limited to rear accessible areas such as alleys. If obstructions are present like light poles, wires or overgrown brush and trees a 2.5 hand line will be optimal. A portable monitor device stretched to the rear is also a choice for well off fires with exposures. Exposure protection will also be the most effective from the rear instead of trying to operate from the front down gangways that diminish your stream angles. A quick stretch to the rear with a second or third attack line should be considered. Exposures are common place with rear porches, so expect one on each side especially if wind conditions exist.
Roof ops can assist by keeping vent holes near the rear and checking the rear wall by pulling back the flashing or tar paper for any extension into the cockloft. The objective is holding or limiting fire extension to the porch side of the rear exterior wall on the original building. Horizontal extension into the cockloft or attics is number one. Guttering should be pried off in the rear to expose the layers of decking and roofing materials during overhaul. Additionally, some rear porches have scuttle openings on the top floor porch roof making vertical ventilation that much easier. A trick is to open the scuttle and force the apron wall inside for quick access into the cockloft. Careful not to unknowingly operate above a porch which is inherently weaker than the roof decking of the original building. Some are tarred over in a way it’s difficult to notice any transition. The parapet side walls will give you a clear indication of where the back wall terminates and the porch roof starts. Pull back some coping stones and make continuous checks for horizontal fire extension into the main building. Any extension found should be immediately communicated with the IC and coordinated with crews below.
These are just a few basic principles to guide by, but there are many more out there worth knowing. The main thing to remember is what inherent issues your building stock presents regarding rear porches. Become intimately familiar with your working environments using every non fire related run as one more opportunity to preplan for the fire related one.
Chris Tobin
There will always be debatable hot topics in the fire service, fog vs smooth, interior vs exterior, wood ladders, metal ladders, this helmet vs that one etc etc etc. These debates exist because of they’re subjectivity thus its impossible to definitively be right or wrong. One recent topic that has peaked my interest when talked about is half story construction. Most notably because it’s not a debate at all or at least shouldn’t be anyways. Terminology in the fire service can be a source of debate all in itself with its endemic vernacular, trade jargon and slang. That’s what makes this particular topic even more intriguing. It Is not a firefighting term at all, it Is an architectural term used in a firefighting context. This is important because due to the fact it’s not a subjective jargon it can conversely be defined with objective terminology making it either right or wrong. There’s no grey area with half story construction, it either is or it is not and that’s where things start to get uncomfortable in conversation especially if you’re a Chief who’s department has been sizing up buildings inaccurately your entire career.
…my response to them is “you’re the reason why this problem exists”…
Now one might say in defense that their department considers half stories a “full story” or “attics” and I my response to them is “you’re the reason why this problem exists”. By taking a well defined architectural term and incorrectly applying it as jargon only creates needless problems for our trade and honestly it makes you sound uneducated. Now you might ask yourself why does this even matter? Why does knowing how to correctly identify this type of construction offer any value at all? Because of two very important characteristics of half story construction, knee walls and roof type. Most notably the top floor voids inherently created by knee walls that you won’t encounter in a full story. Top floor fires in half story construction are a game changer to any IC. These construction features set up a very dangerous set of conditions that are covered here in great detail… Killer in the Attic: Fire Operations in Half-Stories
The point of this article is to address the knowledge gap of identifying half stories on arrival and what the actual definition of one is. I’ve made several social media posts in the past using all sorts of visual aids and graphics to some avail. There always seems to be a portion of the audience that are either still confused or not in agreement so it’s time we clear the air and get the facts straight. A lot of the confusion can be addressed locally by becoming intimately familiar with your building stock. There’s all sorts of misleading characteristics in half stories. False dormers, split floor levels, attic windows and in some cases a hybrid full story and half story construction in the same building typically a loft over an attached garage. All these things can be ruled out or expected if you’re familiar with the buildings in your area. I know in mine 99% of the time what appears to be a half story is a half story, but it’s because I know false dormers or split levels among others aren’t prevailing construction features in my city.
The size up is integral, since building construction is the one uncontrollable factor of every fire ground that directly or indirectly controls everything on it. Knowledge and avoidance are the only tactics we can use for a dangerous building. Everything else… we have the tools to mitigate. When sizing up a building it is important to include half story in your radio traffic. This conveys to incoming units the inherent challenges and the fact you’re dealing with some sort of pitched roof. The limitation of any size up is it’s only as good as what you can see unless you have previous knowledge… ie a preplan. There are many exterior clues but ultimately the only definitive way to know you’re dealing with a half story containing a habitable space is by making entry. Using exterior indicators combined with local knowledge one can usually make a correct assessment from the outside. (yes, there are rare exceptions)
Keep in mind you can have a half story without an occupied space on the top floor. Many get hung up or confused on this. The use of the space does not denote the definition, the construction features do. A half story is dependent on interior wall height and where the roof line terminates. You can have this space accessible by interior stairs but not used as livable space. This still means it’s a half story… and all the inherent problems of half stories will still be present due to how it’s framed not how it’s used. If the top floor doesn’t have full 8ft ceilings thus creating knee walls and the roof line terminates at floor level on the top story making the exterior walls part of the roof then it’s half story construction. If you Google half story definition you’ll get multiple versions of the same basic terminology. Most are used in the home appraisal industry. Keep in mind any height can be a half story you can have a 95 and a half story building depending on its top floor construction. Do not confuse this definition with attics. In North America an attic is a non habitable space for storage inaccessible by stairs. In Europe attics that doubled as living space were called garrets. That’s where some of the confusion starts. Attics have different definitions depending on era and region. Half stories can have attics also and most do, accessible by a small attic scuttle and only used for running utilities or limited storage.
As already covered the big indication of half story construction is where the roof line terminates. If the rooflines above the top floor windows contain 8ft walls then it’s a full story. If it’s at floor level of the top story then it’s a half story. Your attention should be on the top floor. That’s where all your exterior indicators will be. The next big clue are dormer windows, yes there are false dormers but that’s why you rule this out by the presence of gable windows. I have never known anyone to hang a false gable window into a gable wall, that would be asinine. False dormers are usually smaller, without curtains and are accompanied by gable attic vents. If you have large dormer windows with side gable windows that’s a enough indication to include half story in a size up. It’s always better to err on the side off caution than not. There are indicators of living space also. These will be blinds, curtains, lamps and window AC units. Typically people don’t put those in attic windows.
The following are some photos with notations for reference and to show the variance of architectural styles of half stories.
All things considered there’s always exceptions but by combining multiple pieces of information one can be confident they’re making an accurate size up. I hope this article has helped those with difficulty identifying half story construction.
Lex Shady & Chris Tobin
There is a quote that we believe represents the vast majority of the fire service concerning buildings, it reads;
“Many an object is not seen, though it falls within the range of our visual ray, because it does not come within the range of our intellectual ray.”
Thoreau, Henry
Simply put, we all see buildings but few understand what they’re actually looking at. That’s a problem, a really big problem and for two important reasons; which are a building is the one thing that directly or indirectly effects everything we do on the fireground, and the only thing we can do about a compromised building is avoid it entirely. We show up with no solution to sagging roofs, crumbling walls, or missing floors other than staying away. We can mitigate smoke, fire, and rescue trapped victims but we can do nothing about the leaning wall. It’s this stark reality that many forget and have paid the price. You can know all there is about fire behavior, your tools and strategies, none of which hold any value if you’re unfamiliar with the space in which they are relied upon. Some may say all fires are the same, which is true until you put one in a building. Behind every door are an infinite amount of variables, some known, some unknown, and some unexpected. This is why nothing’s routine till it’s over and why knowing your buildings on a visceral level is paramount. If you want to be able to forward think you must understand the data you’re receiving.
This will be a five part series exclusively examining five different types of legacy construction, each with its own article as it pertains to firefighting. The types of buildings were selected based on their prominence in today’s main streets and historic districts. These specific types of buildings exist in small towns from coast to coast but more commonly found East of the Mississippi River where our national building stock originated before moving Westward.
The five buildings are the old house, the taxpayer, the old mill, the vacant theater, and the bowling alley. Each of these will be examined along with inherent hazards and a play book for handling fires specific to each occupancy. Additionally since many of these buildings are found in small towns with departments that may not have the adequate resources, there will be a section based on short staffed responses for each. The objective of this series is to present the most useful amount of information in the least amount of space. Each of these buildings are worthy of their own book in themselves, this series is meant to be concise and simple information for any level of firefighter. As with any article on architecture, regional vernacular and Departmental jargon may vary. Nothing in this piece is the final say, only the individual reader and their streets can make that claim.
Part 4
The Building
The Bowling Alley:
Bowling has a long history, and is still one of the most popular sports today. Some say the origin of bowling dates all the way back to Egypt, as early as 3200 BC. In the United States, its history can be traced back to the mid 1800’s, but it didn’t really gain popularity until the early 1900’s. During prohibition, bowling alleys separated themselves from saloons, turning themselves into family friendly gathering places. Prior to this, bowling alleys were found in basements and known to attract undesirable elements. Some older buildings may still have the remnants and inherent hazards in the basements of what is today a modern business, storefront or dining establishment. Interestingly enough, many private schools still have smaller bowling alleys in basements. These were installed as legal loophole so alcohol could be served on Sundays. After prohibition was over, beer companies started sponsoring teams, and with the rise of television, bowling continued to gain popularity. This culture gave rise to the 2nd floor bowling alley which was intended to offer a more family friendly feel as opposed to basements. Many of these still exist, and are in older buildings which pose their own set of challenges that differ from a more modern single story establishment. Between 1950-1960, bowling alleys became automated, and rapidly spread across the country.
The various construction styles, bowstring roofs, exposure buildings, wooden floors covered in wax and oil, and endless hidden voids make bowling alley fires a recipe for incendiary disaster. These fires are notoriously difficult battle spaces for even the most skilled fireman. Knowledge of the layout, roof features, and general construction can determine whether or not you lose the building, and your firemen with it.
A Peculiar Thing
What’s interesting, and what makes these fires even more hazardous than their inherent construction features and fire loads, is the fact they’re obscurely documented. This seems to be one type of fire that we’ve beat around the bush for over a century. In all of the fire service lexicon that exists, one can not easily find a single book nor comprehensive document specifically addressing bowling alley fires. Why is that? Is it because these fires are unwinnable? Will most we encounter will be lost? No victims are found, and no property saved? It’s very ironic that every news story or interview shows a Chief explicitly describing the dangers of bowling alley fires, yet there’s nothing to cite in fire academia other than one’s experience. What are those dangers? Why does it matter? What do we do about them? These are the questions this article tries to answer.
The most recent publication found was over 50 years ago by the National Board of Fire Underwriters, titled “The Fire Hazard of Bowling Establishments” due to a prevalence of these fires at the time. Aside from that, everything we know about these fires as trade exists as undocumented first person knowledge and news stories. Given that fact alone, articles such as this provide at least a starting point for others to critique and expand on for future learning.
The Hazards
Bowling alleys are unique in that they have a wide range of occupancy purposes. Where else do you find a single building with the potential to house a bar or restaurant, arcade games, machinery, hollow floors, and high fire loads such as storage rooms full of oil and cleaning supplies? Knowledge of building codes, and routine fire inspections can help you keep control of these buildings. If the first time you step in your bowling alley is when it’s on fire, you’re already behind.
A common hazard in bowling alley fires is the presence of Bowstring Truss Roofs. When it isn’t hidden, it is the most easily recognizable roof type, due to its arched top. However, these are commonly hidden by parapet walls or rain roofs, so getting out and examining these buildings ahead of time is essential. There are endless examples of fires in bowstring buildings. And many of the most memorable fires that have resulted in deaths of firemen are a direct result of the collapse of a bowstring roof. A prime example is the Cardinal Lanes Bowling Alley Fire in October of 1967. The explosion, and subsequent roof collapse, caused a concrete wall to trap 10 firemen, 5 of which did not survive. The most notable example of bowstring failure is the 1988 Hackensack Ford Dealership Fire. As a result, these roofs are overemphasized for the potential of sudden collapse earlier than expected. The reality is, the same can be said for any roof. When it comes to bowstring or arched roofs just understand what you’re looking at, specifically the fact they push walls outwards onto far more firemen than have been buried under the roof of one.
The design of bowstring truss roofs is very similar to other truss types; triangles transfer the tension from the bottom chord, and the weight from the top chord onto the load bearing walls. The significant difference, and hazard, with these is that due to the shape of the structure, the compression forces the walls outward, and not just down, significantly increasing collapse potential. Some arched roofs contained a steel tie rod to help with stability, but as temperatures increase these rods will fail, ultimately resulting in collapse. Bowstring truss roofs were commonly used in industrial or commercial settings prior to 1960, as they required no supporting columns and allowed for large open floor plans.
Failure of first arriving firefighters and officers to recognize and relay a bowstring truss roof can result in catastrophic loss. Common reports from these fires are heavy smoke conditions from the outside, while firefighters on the inside report little to no signs of smoke. If you have these signs as you’re entering, use your hook to pop a ceiling tile, preferably from a protected spot such as a doorway, and take a look at what you have overhead. Heavy smoke and fire conditions need to be communicated to command, so they can weigh the risks of continued interior operations under a bowstring roof.
Bowling alleys also contain the potential for endless void spaces, in some cases caused by the aforementioned bowstring roof construction. Where exposure buildings are concerned, bowstring truss’ were sometimes anchored into the dividing party wall, creating a void that fire could pass through from one store to the next. Knowing how to protect these exposure buildings is important. The heat and flame produced by these fires have the potential to be volatile. Foreseeability is key, without it your bowling alley fire can quickly spread to the adjacent buildings.
The floors themselves are also full of void spaces; in between each lane is a track for the ball return, that runs the length of the lane from the pins to the player’s seating area. These are separated from the lanes themselves; however they can allow undetected fire to run the length of the lane. Many of the lanes and flooring themselves can have voids that also run the length of the building, and are several feet deep. There is no fire wall between the pin machines and lanes, so fire in the mechanics can quickly spread to the rest of the bowling alley. If there is a fire in the mechanics of a ball return or the pin placers, you will need to open up multiple sections of flooring to check for extension.
Due to the layout of these buildings, mechanical rooms can sometimes be difficult to access in the rear or may be below grade. Between arcade games, ball returns, pin placers, and restaurants, there is the potential for a lot of power to be running through these buildings. Because of this, getting control of the power early on these scenes is more important than normal, you’ll want to readily know where the access to these controls is located. For small fires, each machine will have its own emergency shutoff, and there is typically at least one power source that controls all of the lanes as well. One often overlooked hazard is interior furnishings. These buildings are old and usually not updated so you’ll have things like wood panelling, heavy varnished wood work, curtains and carpeting. Again, don’t wait until the building is on fire to go looking for the first time.
The MSDS sheets of various oils used to treat the lanes advise that fires involving these chemicals should be treated as an oil, or Class B Fire. They advise that the “oil will float on water, and could spread the fire”. The oils may splatter once they reach their boiling point, and the polymer film will burn rapidly. Many alleys store cases in the back for routine cleaning and maintenance of the lanes. This means the oils will be both in large quantities in a storage room, and across the alley floors. Universal-type foam is highly suggested.
Keep in mind, if the floor is burning, you will need to check the void space below for fire spread. Doing so requires lifting a floor panel, typically you would do this away from the fire, but the lanes are divided by the ball returns. In this case, you would need to check in the area of fire, and lifting floor panels may break the foam layer. Also remember, you most likely have a limited amount of foam available. If you can’t sustain applying foam until the fire is extinguished, you’ll be washing it away as soon as you use water. In our research we were unable to find a bowling alley fire that used foam, would this have made a difference?
The Playbook
When understanding an Incident Action Plan (IAP) for bowling alleys, there needs to be a clear distinction between the three types of buildings you’ll encounter. This should be known, preplanned information, well before it’s transmitted in any size up. These are; legacy sub grade/basement, legacy 2nd floor, and single story modern. Depending on which of these three you have, the orientation and location of the lanes within the building will dictate a wide variance in tactics. This article doesn’t describe specific tactics; but instead highlights general points on which an agency can use their SOGs and capabilities they feel best suits them.
The Sub-grade/Basement bowling alley
Due to the difficulty of sub grade fires in general, any bowling alley fire in a basement progressing past the point of incipient stage should be approached with great caution. Perhaps an option here for a well off fire condition would be flooding the basement with foam. The lane conditioners are of a highly combustible oil and other chemicals that would be made worse with water, same as any Class B fire.
The play here is a strategy of life safety oriented confinement as the main objective in your IAP. The point being to address any life safety hazards such as unaccounted workers or trapped patrons. Fire and smoke behavior in bowling alleys is so volatile in nature that the common methodology of locate, confine, extinguish may not be suitable in a basement even in favorable conditions. Instead emphasis is placed on securing egress routes with the most amount of GMP in the least amount of time as opposed to complete extinguishment. Traditionally smoke isn’t something a stream would be particularly focused on aside from impending backdraft conditions but this is that time. A free burning fire in a basement bowling alley will likely be inaccessible due to the aforementioned conditions. If conditions permit or there’s a report of persons trapped, a large diameter line or two, quickly stretched to the bottom of the stairs will give you the best vantage point for a few reasons.
1. It’s typically a straight run stair so large diameter lines will not have to make turns.
2. It gives you a vantage point to play water on a large area from one location since bowling alleys are wide open spaces.
3.You can scan a large area with a TIC for reported victims while securing your egress and theirs simultaneously.
Any lines stretched to a sub grade fire in a bowling alley need to have at minimum the same diameter hose line as a backup holding the first floor. The first floor back up line must maintain discipline by not needlessly deploying elsewhere into the building leaving the entrance and basement stairs vulnerable for being cut off.
Exterior access points such as basement windows will be key for two reasons; opening a window closest to the fire in a vent limited condition will relieve to a degree the pressure pushing out the entry point and give you access for direct application of hose streams. Both tactics should be utilized as conditions present opportunities to do so. Due to the intensity and limited access challenges, exterior streams through windows on or near the seat of the fire should be your primary tactic for a well involved fire. Even if there’s a report of victims trapped, getting water on what you can early will be the best chance for entry for both us and them. If water can’t be applied immediately using large caliber hose lines, then a defensive posture is the only play. Exposure protection should be accounted for early, before the fire has extended upward from the basement.
Many basement bowling alleys were located in connected rows of buildings or the bottoms of private schools. This sets up a unique challenge for exposures not only for the exterior, but also below grade where buildings may have been connected. In the case for basement bowling alleys in old private schools the exposure concern is the main building above. These bowling alleys were commonly found under the cafeteria or gymnasium for their required large footprint. Keeping these fires contained in the building of origin will require similar tactics used in warehouses where crews hold the protected portions at choke points and corridors with manned or unmanned large diameter hose streams.
The Second Floor Bowling Alley
These fires will almost always be found in buildings of legacy construction consisting of Masonry Type 2 or 3 with a reinforced steel frame and concrete floors for the inherent heavy loads. Having a top floor fire offers some opportunity for roof ops, but historically these fires are so advanced upon arrival that anything other than a confined storeroom or kitchen fire will render vertical ventilation impractical. Knowing this allows a roof crew to triage certain opportunities if presented such as opening skylights and scuttles before attempting saw work.
Another tactical advantage of a top floor fire is the opportunity to deploy a deck gun at an effective angle of attack on arrival. This can’t be done in basement or single story bowling alleys. If on arrival you have fire showing from the front of the building of a second floor bowling alley, now’s the perfect time to deploy your deck gun.
When arriving on scene of a second floor bowling alley, tactics will depend on whether or not the buildings connected or separated by gangways. If the buildings connected in a row then you have to evaluate two additional aspects. How many sides is it connected on and are the adjacent buildings taller or the same height as the fire building. The following scenarios can present themselves:
1. Connected exposures on both sides
2. Connected exposure on one side
3. Connected exposures on both sides of equal height
4. Connected exposures on both sides of greater height
5. Connected exposures on both sides, one equal and one greater height
6. Connected single story exposures.
Out of these possibilities, exposure severity from highest to lowest are
The severity is based on the fact that if an exposure building is higher than a top floor fire building than any fire through the roof will pose a serious threat, especially if the exposure building is downwind and has windows on the windward side. This also limits roof operations for ventilation since any roof openings made above the fire can affect the adjacent downwind exposure.
If the exposure buildings are of equal height, then your primary concern is the common cockloft void and cornice work on the building’s facade. These two avenues of extension, combined with expectation of poke through construction in fire walls and partitions over time will allow you a certain degree of strategic foreseeability in where to best utilize resources. The play here is confining the fire to the top floor of the main building while additional lines are to be stretched into downwind exposures as soon as possible along with monitoring roof conditions.
Access for second floor bowling alleys is typically a single straight run stair right off the street. This allows for a relatively simple advancement of a large diameter hose line or multiple lines without advancing around corners. There should be a side or rear entrance also, if these are used just be cognizant they most likely access utility, kitchens or back rooms making advancing a large diameter hose line less advantageous in those circumstances.
Top floor bowling alley fires that go defensive, and most do, will be easier to utilize aerial master streams due to the obvious access you’ll have when the fire burns through. Any well off second floor bowling alley should by default, position aerial apparatus for master stream operations before the situation even calls for it. This will save you valuable time on the back end when securing water supplies, when exposures become threatened, or in the event of an unexpected collapse.
One Story Modern Bowling Alley.
These are the quintessential bowling alleys most know to exist across the country. As with any large building, light smoke showing is really a lot of smoke anywhere else. Meaning don’t let the lack of heavy smoke conditions you’d see in a house fire trip you up. These buildings are large so any smoke showing from the front door on arrival had a lot of energy to get it there. As stated before, the presence of highly combustible oil based lane conditioners stored in bulk form and applied to the lanes will create a unique fire hazard that water will make worse, such as any Class B fire. If the alleys or the store room is what’s burning then foam should be utilized as necessary.
The play for these like all heavy fire load occupancies is putting large diameter hose lines in service as quickly as possible, supported by vertical ventilation where feasible. The one tactical advantage these buildings give you is their wide open space lacking turns and obstructions for line advancement and stream access. Bowling alley fires typically start in one of two places: kitchens or the pin setting machines. Knowing this, you can make the best choice of entry on such a large building instead of needlessly advancing through the front all the way to the back where a rear door was to begin with. The rear access from the inside is almost always along a side wall in a depressed walk way. This is important to know if you find yourself lost or disoriented so you can radio to the RIT or follow this exterior wall to safety.
If you’re afforded the conditions to make entry, a TIC snd inspection above the drop ceiling must be made and continue as long as crews are inside. Drop ceilings are notorious for concealing large amounts of advanced fire conditions. This can give crews a false sense of security as they get themselves deeper into a building. Any well off fire conditions located above the drop ceiling warrants immediate evacuation as the structural members have been compromised for an unknown amount of time.
If your town’s hydrants are sparse, or your flows must be augmented by tanker shuttled drop tanks then these fires will be defensive by default. There’s nothing wrong with that unless you show up not realizing it and waste valuable time “pissing in the wind” instead of spotting rig placement for master streams outside the collapse zone. When operating in a defensive posture, as most will be at these fires, remember to position aerials on corners and expect bowstrings to push walls outward. Set up collapse zones early on and maintain the discipline post fire as well. The collapse hazards still exist even after the fires out, a lesson too many have learned the hard way.
If you have a report of workers trapped, think about where most workers are in bowling alleys. Ask what their job is, the cashier will work upfront near the entrance. Are they the bartender, cook, or manager? How about the maintenance worker? Perhaps with that information your best place to start would be the rear by the pin setting machines. Knowing that roof scuttles typically open up in rear storage rooms, this may be a life saving vent choice for those trapped in proximity. The point here is to understand these fires are so volatile and your window of opportunity is so narrow that you have to consider only limited precise searches based on the best information provided.
The stark reality of bowling alley fires is that very few if any fire department shows up with the adequate amount of resources in the amount of time needed to successfully extinguish a well involved fire from the interior.
The Short Staffed Response
The tactics discussed above apply to short staffed departments as well – just use your heads and know your limitations. Get in and preplan the building, you most likely only have one, so there is no excuse not to know it intimately. Prior knowledge of the basics such as the location of the lanes, mechanical room access, utilities, etc. will make the first few minutes of your scene run smoother.
Understand with bowling alleys you may have a high GPM demand early on and continued throughout the scene, so you must consider the need for more engines for maximum pumping capacity. The main challenge smaller, less resourceful agencies will have isn’t manpower but instead water supply. When deploying two or three large diameter lines such as a 2.0 or 2.5”, tank water is not going to get you in the door like a normal one line off fire would. Forward lays are ideal in these situations with the next in company making the connection unless they are a ways out, then your engine driver may have to obtain their own supply.
IC’s are going to have to consider many different variables to call for, so pre-plan as much as you can. As discussed above, know your hydrant limitations and have tanker shuttles going early if necessary. Consider calling for additional officers as well as manpower, if for nothing more than to help control the scene and have an extra set of eyes on the building. Early application of foam on lanes and storage rooms is an asset on these fires. You must know how much you have on board your rig, and call for more early on. If the building is heavily involved, this won’t be worth your time; but if you can catch it early, it may make the difference in getting a good stop. Multiple aerials may also be needed, so rural operations will want to get those in route as soon as possible. Like every other fire we’ve discussed, preplanned mutual aid will make your life a lot easier.
Don’t let auto alarms make you complacent. “Nothing showing” on arrival doesn’t necessarily mean there’s no fire. Depending on the design of your bowling alley, there can be a massive void space above the drop ceiling that will hold a lot of smoke and fire, until it doesn’t. Regardless of staffing; if you suspect, or know, that a building has bowstring construction, focus needs to be on opening the ceiling and checking for fire above. If there is visible fire in the trusses upon opening the ceiling, serious consideration needs to be given to going defensive. There is no way to tell how long the fire has been burning, or how close you are to collapse. Same can be said for a basement fire, if you’re going to try to make an attack, you must protect the stairs.
The most common answer to the question of “what was unique about your bowling alley fire?” is consistently how quickly the fire seemed to spread. These fire scenes are described as “fast.” This is an important fact for short staffed or rural departments to remember as their response times may be longer. Later arrival times and fast moving scenes make for a dangerous combination if command isn’t thinking clearly or paying attention. These buildings have a high fire load, and if backdraft mitigation isn’t possible, exterior operations may very well be your only option.
There is a lot of debate on 2.5” vs. 1.75” for big fire attack. You can put out a lot of fire with a 2.5”, that is, if you can maneuver it. These fires don’t give you a lot of time to mess around before you lose them. Luckily these buildings are wide open and lack a lot of small rooms which is ideal for large diameter hose lines. This allows a minimal amount of manpower to get a 2.5” in place from a decent vantage point of relative safety. If you choose a 2.5” but either have to park it in the yard, or flow for a few seconds, shut it down to move and it takes you twice as long to advance, the 1.75” may be the better choice. Simply put, you know your staffing limitations, so pick which line(s) you’re most efficient with and get to work. If the fires reported in the machine room or the rear a 1.75” may be your best bet since maneuvering will be key.
Due to the construction and design layout of these buildings, sometimes by the time detection systems and sprinklers are activated, the fire is too powerful to be suppressed. If interior operations are unable to be completed for whatever reason, utilize what you have; 2.5” lines, deck gun, aerial waterways. Just remember, don’t park your rigs, or your firemen, inside the collapse zone.
Remember, like we discussed with the old mill; a small fire in a big building is a large fire anywhere else. Don’t let the size of the building distort your view of these fires. Know the specific hazards of your building: is it below grade, second story, does it have a bowstring roof? Do they store chemicals for treating the floors? Where are victims likely to be found? Know the hazards that accompany these unique features, but don’t let them cloud your vision for the rest of the scene. Have a general idea of how you would approach a fire in these structures, but be flexible enough to change tactics as the situation dictates. Our hope is that this article opens a dialogue on these unique fires, and that more knowledge can be passed on for further learning.
Citations
Many individuals were consulted in the writing of this article, their knowledge and experience greatly influenced the hazards and tactics discussed above. Due to the nature of how common trade knowledge, jargon, terminology and methods are passed down amongst the fire service much of the articles information can not be cited as a proprietary source to one particular piece of work, individual, group or otherwise.
Dunn V. Collapse of Burning Buildings: a Guide to Fireground Safety: 2nd Ed. 2nd. Ed. Tulsa, OK: Pennwell; 2010.
Dunn, V. (2007). The strategy of firefighting. Tulsa, OK: PenWell.
Fried, E. (1972). Fireground Tactics. Chicago, IL: H. Marvin Ginn Corp.
Hill HJ. Failure Point: How to Determine Burning Building Stability. PennWell Publishing Company; 2012.
Mitchell, U. S. D. of L. J., & Connolly, B. of L. S. W. (1953). The Boy Behind the Pins: A Report on Pinsetters in Bowling Alleys, Bulletin (170), 1–47. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books
NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction. (06.2018).
Pindelski, J. (2007, September 12). Truss Roofs: Do You Know Where the Firefighter Killer Hides? Retrieved March 15, 2020
Lex Shady & Chris Tobin
There is a quote that I believe represents the vast majority of the fire service concerning buildings, it reads;
“Many an object is not seen, though it falls within the range of our visual ray, because it does not come within the range of our intellectual ray.”
Thoreau, Henry
Simply put, we all see buildings but few understand what they’re actually looking at. That’s a problem, a really big problem and for two important reasons; which are a building is the one thing that directly or indirectly effects everything we do on the fireground, and the only thing we can do about a compromised building is avoid it entirely. We show up with no solution to sagging roofs, crumbling walls, or missing floors other than staying away. We can mitigate smoke, fire, and rescue trapped victims but we can do nothing about the leaning wall. It’s this stark reality that many forget and have paid the price. You can know all there is about fire behavior, your tools and strategies, none of which hold any value if you’re unfamiliar with the space in which they are relied upon. Some may say all fires are the same, which is true until you put one in a building. Behind every door are an infinite amount of variables, some known, some unknown, and some unexpected. This is why nothing’s routine till it’s over and why knowing your buildings on a visceral level is paramount. If you want to be able to forward think you must understand the data you’re receiving.
This will be a five part series exclusively examining five different types of legacy construction, each with its own article as it pertains to firefighting. The types of buildings were selected based on their prominence in today’s main streets and historic districts. These specific types of buildings exist in small towns from coast to coast but more commonly found East of the Mississippi River where our national building stock originated before moving Westward.
The five buildings are the old house, the taxpayer, the old mill, the vacant theater, and the bowling alley. Each of these will be examined along with inherent hazards and a play book for handling fires specific to each occupancy. Additionally since many of these buildings are found in small towns with departments that may not have the adequate resources, there will be a section based on short staffed responses for each. The objective of this series is to present the most useful amount of information in the least amount of space. Each of these buildings are worthy of their own book in themselves, this series is meant to be concise and simple information for any level of firefighter. As with any article on architecture, regional vernacular and Departmental jargon may vary. Nothing in this piece is the final say, only the individual reader and their streets can make that claim.
Part 3
The Building
The old mill: What would a town be without the mill? Nonexistent, that’s what. Unless you’re in a planned bedroom community platted in the 21st century then it’s highly likely your town grew around industry during the American Industrial Revolution. Such times gave us terms like “mill town”, “company town,” “factory house,” and “mill village.” The first mills were built in the countryside along powerful waterways and were wheel driven. The advent of steam power did away with this type of construction, and lead to the hulking heavy timbered factories that would dominate the landscape for the next century.
It was due to both the prevalence and their inherent construction features that so many of these buildings still exist in towns all over America. Textile mills were more common in New England, but as with everything else that expanded westward, so did industry and its buildings. Whether you lived in the corn belt, rust belt, or the cotton belt didn’t matter. Every town needed jobs, and those jobs were in one of many large factories that were surrounded by neighborhoods of their workers.
The term “mill type construction” originally in reference to the large New England textile mills is now used interchangeably with any such type four heavy timber factory. These buildings are exclusively legacy or heritage era construction with rough cut sawn timbers and joinery. The exterior walls are noncombustible masonry that are a thicker wythe at the bottom. Generally 24 to 36 inches thick at the ground level and tapering up as the building rose in height to typically no more than six stories. All four walls will be load bearing. Type lV “heavy timber” can be numerous types of occupancies such as churches, gymnasiums, and even residential. Mill type is a subtype of this construction, specifically referring to commercial use, such as factories or warehouses with masonry walls and specific dimensions on components such as floors and roof decking. It all comes down to what building code was used, and when it was published. It’s important the reader understand that Type lV construction can exist in numerous types of occupancies such as places of worship, lofts or restaurants, not just old mills; even though the construction features are the same. This article will be focusing solely on Type lV heavy timber mill type buildings.
The definition of Type IV heavy timber is commonly confused with Type V heavy timber wood framed buildings such as heritage framed construction or old barns. While the heavy timber framing may exist, Type V is still a wood framed building, thus not mill type construction due to the lack of masonry walls. There can be some variance amongst building codes, however all adhere to the minimum dimensions for heavy timber mill construction which is defined by the NFPA as follows:
– Noncombustible exterior load bearing walls.
– Main framing members being no less than eight inches by eight inches.
– Wood columns supporting solely roof members shall be no less than six by eight inches.
– Beams and girders supporting floor loads shall be no less than six by ten inches.
– Beams and girders supporting roof members shall be no less than four by six inches.
The idea behind heavy timber is its inherent fire protection based on mass. Simply put the beams will char, while structural integrity isn’t effected as severely as smaller diameter wood. While heavy timber is typically slower to ignite, once ignited it conversely has the potential to become unstoppable. This was no secret and why Mills were designed in quarters or thirds separated by true fire walls with fusible linked rated metal clad fire doors. The first automatic fire sprinkler systems were also installed in these buildings as early as 1874. These buildings were designed around the idea of passive fire protection in a time when fires were devastating the textile industry. These passive construction features will be a major part of any modern attack strategy, the key is knowing how to use them effectively during operations.
The Hazards
The connections between columns and girders are far more susceptible to collapse than the beams themselves. The connections were often made of cast iron, which we already know is unreliable and fails at variable temperatures, unlike steel which has uniform failure points. Additionally, cast iron fails completely and catastrophically without warning. This is due to how the fire effects the variance in the casting process, not cold water hitting hot metal. In some cases there were cast iron floor columns as well. Depending on the load requirements for the building some floors would have cast iron columns and others heavy timber. It just depended on what the manufacturer wanted.
The floors of these buildings also pose a special hazard over time. Layers of floor, typically layered tongue and groove (also known as planks) made up the flooring system. Years of chemical spills, and oil from machinery add risk. Cold storage facilities typically had a coating applied to help preserve the wood and keep the floors from being slippery add yet another layer of risk. These both can make floors a fire hazard as they speed up the combustion process which obviously then increases collapse risk. You could also expect to see floor joists in these buildings having fire cuts. Fire cuts are angled cuts at the ends of beams along the exterior masonry walls. The purpose of these cuts was to maintain structural integrity of the exterior walls, having the interior floors collapse inward, onto themselves instead of forcing the walls out. Great for exterior firefighters, not so great for ones inside. Keep in mind fire cuts were designed in an era before interior firefighting with the idea of keeping the exterior operations safe
Lack of windows, whether from original construction or bricked in later significantly reduce the ability to vent these fires. Few entrances also make safe operations a concern. Another hazard created when one of these buildings becomes vacant are the presence of unmarked open shafts. When workers are present or the buildings routinely preplanned, elevator and freight lifts are known and marked, or railed for the workers safety. These things become absent when an old mill falls into disrepair. Railings are scrapped, lifts are removed, and what’s left is an unmarked, unknown large opening spanning multiple floors. The obvious fall hazard, combined with a now unprotected shaft acting as an interior chimney, should be an immediate red flag for anyone arriving on scene of an old vacant mill. These unprotected openings also allow for rapid vertical fire spread, so checking for extension on upper floors is key.
Even after the fires out one often often over looked hazard is the post fire collapse zone. These buildings will burn and smolder for days and without constant supervision the collapse zone becomes less enforced with time. Crews from different shifts may arrive days later and meander into an area with deadly consequences. The walls of these buildings will stay free standing up to heights of many stories and fall without warning. Keep any collapse zone set up at the time of the fire clearly marked with tape even after the fires out.
The Playbook
The interior ops margin for mill type construction is narrow. These fires are either catastrophic block long conflagrations or mundane rubbish burning from vagrants or industrial processes. The play here is for the few fires that are still vent limited and deep seated, requiring interior lines stretched, searches for both fire or victims, and interior exposure protection.
Confinement is key, use the inherent construction features to your advantage. The closing of the fire doors should be an early task done simultaneously with line advancement. The firewalls in these buildings were constructed of non load bearing isolated masonry that goes from the basement up through the roof. There will be fire doors on each level typically directly above one another in the floor plan. The worst case scenario is a well off fire of unknown location. This will be even further complicated if it’s discovered sub grade in a basement. These buildings lack basement windows and stair wells are very small; making the idea of laboriously advancing a large diameter line into zero visibility vent limited conditions seem suicidal.
Tag lines while good in theory, will be of no practical use with stock or palletized goods to maneuver around. Members not operating on a hose line must have a TIC. Becoming lost and low on air is a high probability in these buildings. Accountability and forward thinking of committing members inside must be at a higher level of scrutiny due to this risk. Multiple RITs should be assigned due to the size and reflex/travel time requirements. Too much manpower is just as much of a problem as too little. Use your crews accordingly and diligently, not wasting manpower on things such as utilities or lesser important tasks at hand. Searches must be limited to reflect good intel and not comprehensive like on typical residential fires. You can not send crews searching into oblivion, these buildings demand a conservative search strategy. If you have an employee onsite, it’s imperative a role call is done to account for the workers.
Once the life safety objectives have been addressed, the fire must be located and the fire doors closed. If the fire can’t be located but the doors can be shut, then you’ll soon find out what section you’ve written off. If the fire can’t be located and doors not shut, then you will lose the building and every piece of property in it.
Once the fires been located, it’s a battle against time and GPM. Keep in mind a small fire in a big building is actually a big fire anywhere else. Don’t let the optics play tricks on you. What seems like a one line fire may in reality take multiple lines and even master streams to extinguish. If conditions have not improved after 10-15 minutes, start considering a shift to confinement over extinguishment. It’s better to save 3/4s of a building than none at all. Once the fire has extended up through multiple floors it’s no longer extinguishable from the inside. Lapping will soon follow once the fire reaches the windows. Now you’re confronted with horizontal interior fire spread and exterior vertical fire spread by combustible window frames. You can see how narrow the margin is for successful interior operations. You will only have one shot with an interior attack.
The decision to transfer to interior confinement over extinguishment can be based on some benchmarks.
– Interior streams showing no improvement in conditions.
– Fire showing on more than one floor upon arrival.
– Unable to locate the fire for an extended period of time under deteriorating conditions.
– Hazardous material making a direct attack unsafe.
– Localized structural integrity problems such as a portion under construction, floors missing, etc. making entry into the involved section impractical.
Confinement is a last chance strategy to save the remaining unaffected parts of the building and its property. This strategy should only be attempted when there are no indicators of compromised structural integrity, and the fire hasn’t spread to multiple floors for an extended period of time. If the building is sectioned off by firewalls, the decision needs to be made on where to hold the fire. Depending on conditions this may be the next closest fire wall or two sections away if it’s a fast moving fire or resources are slow to deploy. The objective is to hold the fire doors containing the spread of fire to the original section of origin as much as possible. These buildings may carry large quantities of stored products so as with any property conservation strategy, the risk should be taken accordingly. Interior streams and personnel should be positioned on the protected sides of firewalls only long enough to set up portable ground monitors. Once the interior streams are in place aerial master streams should be positioned at the upwind side of the fire wall and directed onto anything burning through the roof. If the fire doors are missing or the fire walls have been compromised this tactic shouldn’t be attempted and operations should transfer into a defensive posture using only exterior master streams. Unfortunately, due the robustness of heavy timber roof construction, fire will spread horizontally unchecked from one section to another instead of quickly burning through like in other types of construction. This makes exterior master streams completely ineffective when trying to stay ahead of the fire. Roof ops are limited to existing openings such as skylights, roof top stairwells, and HVAC vents. Keep roof crews on the protected sides of firewalls if they’re monitoring conditions. Don’t waste the resources on heavy timber roofs, the fire will likely outpace you with tradition vertical ventilation tactics. Once exterior operations are warranted, position aerial master streams at corners and junctures of firewalls in long runs of masonry walls. After resources are positioned it’s then a war of water, from here GPM wins the day.
The Short Staffed Response
Manpower! Manpower! Manpower! Followed by water and even more water. The bigger the structure, the more people you will need. It’s important for Officers to have a clear understanding of their departments resources, and even more so, their limitations. Remember, fires in these structures can be deceiving. Like we discussed above, what appears to be a small fire in these buildings can be rather large, purely due to the size of the structure, and you need to be prepared. These fires are definitely what one would consider a high risk, low frequency event, so extra command staff may prove to be beneficial. Accountability and continuous 360’s will be important for safety on these fires. Extra eyes on the outside can also help identify fire spread on additional floors, as it may look contained to an interior crew. Depending on the size and location of the fire, you may want to consider assigning division or operations chiefs, as well as water supply management responsibilities to additional officers. Doing so allows command to focus on the bigger picture.
Accept the fact that complete interior searches will be next to impossible to complete safely due to the size and complexity of these structures without adequate manpower and prior training on large area search. Even more so than the other fires we’ve discussed, preplanning is key. Command needs to know how long it will take mutual aid or additional staffing to arrive on scene. Preset mutual aid assignments can potentially help with these response times. Prior knowledge of the building such as location of utilities and the interior layout for the location of open elevator shafts, fire doors, and all available exits will help ensure the safety of your crews. Having contact information for maintenance staff or the owner readily available can help you as well if you don’t have floor plans on hand. You’ll also want to consider additional water sources as the use of aerials have the potential to quickly overpower the nearest hydrants depending on pressure available.
Unlike taxpayer fires, where we suggested the use of the smaller diameter hose due to low manpower and maneuverability; selecting the larger diameter hose may be the key to these fires. The likelihood of deploying more than one attack line is high as well, and closing the fire doors as mentioned above should be a priority. Two more reasons manpower is important. Because there are few walls throughout the large open space, fire spreads rapidly, and your stream may need to be able to reach from the stairwell to the far corner before conditions allow you to advance, yet another reason to choose the 2.5”. One benefit to the open space, is that there are few concealed spaces allowing hidden fire spread, which in theory should make finding the seat of the fire easier.
While fires in these buildings are considered difficult to start due to the low surface-to-mass ratio, they expand quickly. It is important that you acknowledge your department’s limits, and understand that these fires can quickly overwhelm even a well staffed urban department’s resources. That fact, combined with response times, manpower, and collapse risks, may make defensive operations your only option.
Remember, a small fire in a big building is a big fire anywhere else. Manage your resources wisely and don’t be afraid to change tactics if you’re not seeing changes. Utilize the inherent construction features to your advantage. In theory, with a quick response and enough manpower, if you can get to the fire, you can put it out. That is, if you have enough water.
Citations
Due to the nature of how common trade knowledge, jargon, terminology and methods are passed down amongst the fire service much of the articles information can not be cited as a proprietary source to one particular piece of work, individual, group or otherwise.
Dunn V. Collapse of Burning Buildings: a Guide to Fireground Safety: 2nd Ed. 2nd. Ed. Tulsa, OK: Pennwell; 2010.
Dunn, V. (2007). The strategy of firefighting. Tulsa, OK: PenWell.
Hill HJ. Failure Point: How to Determine Burning Building Stability. PennWell Publishing Company; 2012.
NFPA 220: Standard on Types of Building Construction. (06.2018).
Lex Shady & Chris Tobin
There is a quote that I believe represents the vast majority of the fire service concerning buildings, it reads;
“Many an object is not seen, though it falls within the range of our visual ray, because it does not come within the range of our intellectual ray.”
Thoreau, Henry
Simply put, we all see buildings but few understand what they’re actually looking at. That’s a problem, a really big problem and for two important reasons; which are a building is the one thing that directly or indirectly effects everything we do on the fire ground, and the only thing we can do about a compromised building is avoid it entirely. We show up with no solution to sagging roofs, crumbling walls, or missing floors other than staying away. We can mitigate smoke, fire, and rescue trapped victims but we can do nothing about the leaning wall. It’s this stark reality that many forget and have paid the price. You can know all there is about fire behavior, your tools and strategies, none of which hold any value if you’re unfamiliar with the space in which they are relied upon. Some may say all fires are the same, which is true until you put one in a building. Behind every door are an infinite amount of variables, some known, some unknown and some unexpected. This is why nothing’s routine till it’s over and why knowing your buildings on a visceral level is paramount. If you want to be able to forward think you must understand the data you’re receiving.
This will be a five part series exclusively examining five different types of legacy construction, each with its own article as it pertains to firefighting. The types of buildings were selected based on their prominence in today’s main streets and historic districts. These specific types of buildings exist in small towns from coast to coast but more commonly found East of the Mississippi River where our national building stock originated before moving Westward.
The five buildings are the old house, the taxpayer, the old mill, the vacant theater, and the bowling alley. Each of these will be examined along with inherent hazards and a play book for handling fires specific to each occupancy. Additionally since many of these buildings are found in small towns with departments that may not have the adequate resources, there will be a section based on short staffed responses for each. The objective of this series is to present the most useful amount of information in the least amount of space. Each of these buildings are worthy of their own book in themselves, this series is meant to be concise and simple information for any level of firefighter. As with any article on architecture, regional vernacular and Departmental jargon may vary. Nothing in this piece is the final say, only the individual reader and their streets can make that claim.
Part 2
The Building
The Type 3 Taxpayer: AKA “Main-street USA”. These are the quintessential multi-story brick buildings that exist in some version in every North American town, big or small. Ordinary Type 3 construction is by far the most common type of buildings that make up what most consider Main Street. The notion that brick buildings are an “urban thing” is no further from the truth. Take a drive through any rural community and you’ll likely see a row or what’s left of an old general store, post office, or bank. These may be the only brick buildings for miles, but they are still the center of town and no less a fire hazard. For some rural fire departments that only go on a few dozen runs per year, a fire in a two or three story brick building built in 1909 will be an unfamiliar playing field.
The term taxpayer originates from a time period during which buildings were cheaply constructed in densely populated places so that property managers could recoup their property taxes. This manifested itself into a multi story brick building, with commercial occupancy on the bottom floor and residential on the upper floors. These buildings came into popularity after the Great Depression with the intent to be redeveloped, many of which were not and still exist. This definition has evolved with modern times to include type 2 non-combustible strip malls. For the sake of this article, we’ll be specifically speaking of the traditional definition of a taxpayer type building; a type 3 multistory, mixed use occupancy with commercial on the first floor and residential above.
Main streets in general exist in three types of configurations. The aforementioned, as an actual street fronted with legacy construction, a Shelbyville Square, or four sided town square built around a courthouse or common area, and lastly as a historic district with multiple blocks of taxpayer type buildings. This matters when preplanning incident action plans since a row of connected taxpayers is more hazardous than single buildings separated by gangways. Also, if you have a town square or multiple blocks of historic districts you may have roundabouts that will affect apparatus positioning differently than a traditional linear Main Street, as well as collapse zones for aerial master streams.
The buildings of taxpayer construction come in all shapes and sizes. They can be type 2, 3, and 4. Some have metal truss roof supports, cast iron columns, concrete floors, and heavy timber void-less layouts. The most common by a wide margin is the type 3 Ordinary building. This taxpayer will be masonry non-combustible walls with wooden combustible roof, floors, and interior walls. Foundations are typically stone with variably sized basements for storage. Keep in mind these may be connected to adjacent buildings or even across the street. Even if basements are not common in your areas residential building stock, they may be present in taxpayer buildings. Basements were cooler and a way for businesses to keep produce and stock before refrigeration.
Taxpayers are full of unique features that can make fighting a fire in these buildings a challenge. Typically found in rows of connected buildings their inherent exposure problems are an obvious concern. Occupancies may also share what was originally designed to be two separate buildings separated by a party wall. Renovations can make these layouts impossible to anticipate without preplanning. The masonry brick walls will be of triple wythe, tapering up as the building gets taller. This is important to understand when sizing up structural integrity. A crack down low doesn’t mean the same as a crack up high. Load bearing walls will be the shortest length of roof span, typically the sides with few exceptions. These buildings were long, narrow, and a perfect fit for densely populated lots. Roof designs can be either pitched or flat; however, a built up combustible flat roof is far more common on Taxpayers than a shingled pitched roof. The built-up flat roof consists of 1×6-1×8 planks across dimensional rafters on 16” centers with a slight slope for watershed. Expect multiple layers of tar applied over the decades, in some cases a newer membrane roof covering may have been put in place. Taxpayers with flat roof construction will have a cockloft. This is a common void between the top floor ceiling and roof that extends front to back getting smaller with the roof slope. Cockloft vents near the roof line in the front or side walls are an indication of its exact depth and presence in relation to the roof which may have side parapet walls. Taxpayers have three types of common facade features to beware of; cornices, parapets, and awnings. More will be discussed about these and their hazards later on. Additionally, billboard framework and water towers weren’t uncommon loads to find on top of these buildings. Cast iron is yet another facade design feature common for Taxpayers. These were often brightly painted ornate pillars, columns, and lintel work set into the brick, or supporting the bottom corner entrance of the business. The first floor also had large windows for viewing products by pedestrian traffic.
The residential aspect of these buildings was more of an afterthought during construction; their main function was to sell something, not be a home. The upper floors were accessible from either a front set of stairs off the main street or a rear alley. In a row of connected taxpayers it can be hard to tell which door accesses which upper floor apartment. Depending on the occupancy there may be a set of open interior stairs making any first floor fire even more detrimental to those above. The typical layout was bedrooms and common areas up front with kitchens in the rear. In shotgun style layouts the stairs come into the middle room. In wider buildings a side hallway was common. It is important to consider this if your stairs are in the rear and you’re stretching a line to a 2nd floor fire on the A side.
The Hazards
Taxpayers are infamously known to firefighters for their voids. There are two kinds of voids in Type 3 buildings: inherent and acquired. Inherent voids are due to the buildings original design and acquired voids are due to additional construction and alterations. The latter being much more hazardous to firefighters since additions were commonly done without permits or with any regard to fire safety or building codes.
Inherent voids of type 3 Taxpayer construction:
– Cornice work, mansard parapets, wood framed canopies and awnings
– Window frame voids for sash weights
– Decorative trim and crown molding
– Floor voids
– Ceiling voids
– Stud bays behind plaster & lath
– Cocklofts
– Pipe chases
– HVAC plenums
– Cant stripping along parapet walls
Acquired voids commonly seen in Taxpayer construction:
– Dropped ceiling on the bottom floor creating a double void under tin ceiling
– Dropped ceiling on top floor creating a double void under a cockloft
– Transom windows concealed with framed canopies or dropped ceilings
– Hallways framed off into closets
– Larger original rooms being framed into smaller rooms
– Rear additions, enclosed porches into living space
– Rain roofs added on top of original flat roof
These are just the commonly occurring voids in type 3 ordinary construction, there can be many more. The main takeaway is knowing where to expect the fire before it gets there. A good firefighter will build the skill of foresight in legacy construction. The benefit being a more effective and efficient operation. Preplanning and studying the construction of your districts are the first steps to accomplishing this. These buildings will often have legacy construction features making overhaul much more laborious. These include embellished trim work, crown moulding, tin ceilings and wainscoting.
The voids in these buildings also contribute to another well known hazard; the hostile fire event. Whether a backdraft or smoke explosion, either can be just as catastrophic. These hazards are two-fold, the initial hostile fire event and the ensuing collapse of structural members. This can set up a synergistic effect of calamity on the fireground.
The inherent/acquired voids and design of Taxpayers make them a high risk for both floor and exterior wall collapse. Fire cuts are angled cuts on the end of a wood beam, where it rests against a masonry wall. As the beam burns away, the fire cut allows it to pull away from the wall. The purpose of these cuts is to help save the exterior wall from collapse. The disadvantage is the increased potential for interior floor collapse. This was a construction feature from a time when firefighting was an exterior operation, keeping firemen safe. Terrazzo floors, polished floor covering made of chips of marble, quartz, glass, etc. poured into cement are another significant collapse hazard. Terrazzo floors add significant weight to the floor beams, and hides heat and weakness in the beams from the firefighters above. Twelve firefighters were killed at the 23rd Street Fire in New York City in 1966 from a Terrazzo floor collapse. To evaluate the floor’s structural integrity, forcefully strike the floor with your tool. Wooden floors make a hollow sound, and your tool with bounce significantly. Masonry floors will make a loud clanking sound with a lot of vibration across the floor. Finding Terrazzo floors needs to be communicated to Command immediately.
There are three ways a masonry wall can collapse: 90 degree angle, curtain fail, and inward/outward. Of the three, 90 degree is most common. Once interior floors collapse, the pile of debris creates a lateral force on the remaining exterior walls. This extra force on the walls can cause cracks at the top, or separation at the corners. The walls then begin to lean outward, starting at the top, and will fall at a 90 degree angle. This collapse area will be at minimum, the height of the building. The top of the wall falls forward, striking the ground at the height of the building. As always collapse zones need to be at least 1.5x the height of the building to account for pieces of brick and metal that bounce. Parapet walls with decorations, lights, signs, etc. increase the collapse risk of the wall.
Curtain fall collapses occur when the wall crumbles and falls down, straight to the base of the wall. This is most common with veneer walls where the plywood backing is burnt away by fire. If there is an interior collapse and the exterior wall has windows whose lintels are made of brick arches, the masonry walls may start to lean out. If the lintels begin to crumble and fail, the wall will fall downward rather than out.
Inward/outward collapse occurs when the top of the wall falls one direction, forcing the bottom of the wall in the other. Interior floors collapsing due to fire damage combined with the weight of the water being applied to the building; in turn, a massive burst of force is applied on the outward walls, which causes them to lean outward until they reach the point of failure and fall. An inward/outward collapse can also occur if the top portion of the wall begins to lean in. Just because the wall leans in, doesn’t mean it will collapse that way. The top portion could fall in and kick the bottom portion outward, or the top portion could begin to fall in, and then slide down, with the bottom of the wall going first.
Evaluating walls for collapse risk needs to be done continuously throughout the entirety of the fire scene. Interior floor collapse increases the risk of the exterior walls failing. The force of a master stream directly on these walls can also cause the wall to collapse. To identify whether the wall is brick or veneer, look for quoin work in the corners or for what is referred to as the header course. Brick quoin work acts as a decoration and as structural support, tying the two walls together. If there is separation in these walls, it indicates weakness in the support systems, and collapse is imminent. Header course appears approximately every 7th layer; bricks will be laid end facing to act as a layer of support.
The Playbook
Size up is key in Type 3 Taxpayer buildings. Before any action can be taken, the structural integrity of the building must be assessed. Brick and joist construction has a high collapse potential, and compromised structural integrity is the one problem with no solution other than avoidance. Keep an eye on cracks above windows and doors; openings are inherent weak points in any wall, so they’re early indicators of wall collapse. If cornice work or a mansard brow is heavily involved, avoid the front entrance if possible. Cornices come down like a guillotine blocking entrances, burying lines and personnel masking up before entry. Buildings connected to one another in a row will have limited access and egress from the front and rear only. Keep this in mind if the front entrance is unsuitable, you’ll have to stretch the line through an adjacent building to the rear if the alley isn’t an option for apparatus placement. If the fire is confined to the cockloft, keep an eye on the parapet wall. Failing roof rafters can push out or pull in parapets. A parapet wall falling inward is just as destructive for those inside under a roof as those in the street when one falls outward. Floors are the next structural assessment, particularly the first floor, since basements commonly have open joist construction unprotected by plaster, making basement fires particularly hazardous. Beware of terrazzo and tiled hard flooring surfaces. These will mask any structural deficiency under them while adding weight to the potentially weakened decking. These surfaces are found in bottom floor business vestibules, stairwell landings, kitchens and bathrooms. Sounding with a tool will give you little indication of the actual wood decking so tread lightly and keep your eyes down for floor separation at the bottom of walls.
Once structural integrity has been assessed and an offensive strategy decided, the next key decision is your weapon of choice. Taxpayers present a unique challenge of having commercial fire loads with residential components, so many choose a larger diameter attack line for bottom floor fires. Keep in mind, every action has an equal reaction. What you gain in GPM for the bottom floor you’ll lose in maneuverability on the upper floors. This poses a challenging conundrum of sorts for incident commanders. The optimal choice of attack lines will vary based on conditions, resources, and training. Regardless of your line choice, plan for a long stretch. These fires are not 200ft victories. This is often figured out after the fact, causing valuable time to be wasted extending line under subpar conditions. A fire on an upper floor or basement especially will be a longer than normal hose line length due to stairs and corners. Once these arrival considerations are addressed the objective remains the same; to locate, confine, and extinguish the fire while protecting the upper floor living spaces.
For basement fires a line should be stretched to an exterior entrance if possible; this may be in the front on the sidewalk down bifold doors, but typically it will be in a rear walk down or bulkhead entrance. For interior entrances care must be taken in assessing floor integrity while understanding the greater load of merchandise on top of open joist construction underneath. A second line must be stretched to the first floor to secure egress on interior entrances and to cut off extension. Basements in Taxpayers are usually cramped with stock in storage lockers made of lightweight lumber and wire mesh. Taking this into consideration a smaller diameter, more maneuverable hand line may be more effective. Keep in mind the wire mesh will diminish stream quality if not removed. Basement windows are also commonly secured with burglar bars, so be ready for egress issues that need to be immediately addressed by the first arriving company assigned to truck duties.
First floor fires will be of commercial fire loads so be prepared for commercial fire flows. Forward progress will be slow going; these fires are tough and are almost never seated easily near the front. Rows of merchandise inhibit movement, drop ceilings collapse from HVAC ducts, stocks falls over on hoselines, and high heat zero visibility vent limited conditions are common.
Some places opt for a large diameter hose line as a default while others quickly deploy two smaller diameter hand lines in tandem. One large diameter line may fully extinguish the fire quicker but redeployment to the second or third floor for extension will be greatly diminished compared to smaller more maneuverable hand-lines that occupy more real estate in the same amount of time. One option is leading off with a large diameter line for the first floor fire and stretching a second small diameter line for the upper floors. This gives you the benefit of greater GPM with enhanced maneuverability. The deck gun isn’t typically a good option due to subpar stream angles. Save that card for upper floors.
Fires on the upper floors have two key considerations. First is the likelihood of living space and the second is fire extension into the cockloft. Any fire in a taxpayer on an upper floor has an implied life threat so operations should be conducted in a rescue mode with emphasis on search. If conditions permit, Truck companies should search ahead and close doors confining any rooms of fire while lines are being stretched. VES is a an effective option as well as ladder based entry to upper floors keeping the stairs clear for the Engine company deploying lines. Fires on 3rd floors or higher should be dry stretched one floor below for speed. If overwhelming fire conditions meet you on arrival, don’t hesitate to deploy the deck gun. Make sure to sweep any cornice work above the windows before zeroing in on the rooms of fire. This will slow any lapping into the cockloft and cool the combustible cornice work. Roof operations are implied on any top floor fire in taxpayer construction, even more so in a row of connected type 3 buildings with a common cockloft. This needs to be proactive and happen early in the operations. A report of cockloft conditions needs to be transmitted as soon as possible by roof teams. Assign multiple roof crews downwind to monitor for extension, as well as the top floor of adjacent buildings.
If the fire has taken hold of a cockloft, your options are resource dependent. If you choose offensive roof ops, you have three options; use existing scuttles, skylights and vents, dice a heat hole or holes where needed, or a trench cut. Built up flat roof ventilation is a laborious task requiring numerous saws and more manpower than a residential op. If that’s your play, then position additional crews downwind first and work the party walls if the buildings are connected. The point here is to balance the need:time ratio. If you don’t have the manpower for roof ops, then the work must get done from below by pulling ceilings and extinguishing fire without the assistance of vertical ventilation. This will be a tough endeavor, but it’s possible and may take multiple advances into and out of the fire area by crews pushed back by deteriorating conditions. In this situation it’s best to position crews inside the downwind exposure to pull ceilings along the party wall and hold the fire to the original building.
The last possibility and the most hazardous circumstance on arrival is an impending backdraft situation. If you’re facing high heat vent limited conditions forcefully pushing from the first floor, then you have a few options.
-Flanking at an angle with a large diameter lines
-Remote water application via piercing nozzles, Bresnan distributors
-Remote water application via piercing nozzles, Bresnan distributors
-Vertical ventilation while flowing into the superheated gases before advancing
The inherent voids in Taxpayers makes these conditions a common occurrence. Once again conditions and resources will determine your play. The simplest is by flanking two large diameter hose lines on superheated conditions to cool the environment from outside. Crews are positioned safely at offset angles in case of a backdraft or smoke explosion. Never congregate in front of openings in case of a hostile fire event unexpectedly occurs. Vertical ventilation is the most effective, but obviously a first floor or basement fire in a multi story building limits that option to an extent. One option is opening the display bump-outs inside the front windows. Remote cooling or water application requires some special equipment and training. You may also need to breach a wall or floor which is a time consuming operation. In the end, be cognizant of ventilation limited indicators before haphazardly opening doors and windows leading to a hostile fire event.
The Short Staffed Response
The best thing you can do for these structures is to pre-plan. Short staffed departments do not have the luxury of resources making time all that more important upon arrival on scene. Knowing the inherent risks of each individual building can help you quickly make initial assignments upon arrival. Get your crews out into these buildings- regularly. There are many things to look for during walk throughs, just a few of them are:
– Air vents in the floors indicating basements
– Exterior/interior basement access
– High ceilings in one building, low ceilings in the next indicate it is probably a drop ceiling (void above)
– Parapet walls, marquees, canopies, and cornices as they increase the risk for structural collapse.
– Construction remodeling- legacy vs. lightweight construction
– Location of stairs
– Terrazzo Floors
Modern codes require fire walls between occupancies; however, sometimes these codes are not enforced in existing structures or in older historic districts. When fire gets in a cockloft without fire walls, it can rapidly spread horizontally to the exposure structures on either side. If this occurs, you will not win against these fires with 4-6 firefighters. A “simple” fire in a taxpayer can overwhelm your resources quickly due to the excessive amount of voids we’ve already spoken of. Additional manpower isn’t a want, but a necessity. Refusing to call for more help can result in the loss of an entire block.
As always, situation dictates response. Like every fire, Taxpayer fires need an attack crew for the seat of the fire, protecting stairs/egresses, search, ventilation, and more. With the complexity and variability of commercial and residential properties, successfully fighting these fires is not something you can do with minimum manpower. Big fire, big building, means lots of water. As discussed above, typically the initial attack line we think to pull is a large diameter line. However, with minimum manpower, when advancing through structures such as these; you risk a slow advance on the fire, and you can quickly wear even the most advanced firemen. Short staffed departments may want to automatically opt for the two smaller handlines, if for no other reason than not wearing out your crew. Once additional crews arrive, if you need more GPM on the first floor, you could choose to also advance the large diameter line. Yet another reason you’ll need the additional manpower.
Knowing which structures are occupied vs. vacant is extremely important for departments with short staffing. As initial response is small, you’ll want to know which structures are more likely to be occupied- thus being your primary focus for initial search. Once additional crews arrive, search can be extended to the other structures if not already completed.
As discussed previously, roof ops may not be an option for short staffed departments. In this case, going interior may not be possible. Without the lift of heat and smoke from vertical ventilation interior conditions can become unbearable. You may have to utilize deck guns, flanking the angles with large diameter lines, or an aerial if available to fight the fire from the exterior.
Many have mistaken sound decisions in unsound buildings. All things considered, collapse and unseen fire spread should be the two red flags in the back of your mind on arrival on a Taxpayer fire. These fires aren’t won at 3am; they’re won the previous day during a preplanned walkthrough. Use every available opportunity to become intimately familiar with these buildings, whether it’s an EMS call or just getting out of the house on a nice day. The devil is in the details, and the minutiae matters.
Citations
Due to the nature of how common trade knowledge, jargon, terminology and methods are passed down amongst the fire service much of the articles information can not be cited as a proprietary source to one particular piece of work, individual, group or otherwise.
Dunn V. Collapse of Burning Buildings: a Guide to Fireground Safety: 2nd Ed. 2nd. Ed. Tulsa, OK: Pennwell; 2010.
Hill HJ. Failure Point: How to Determine Burning Building Stability. PennWell Publishing Company; 2012.
Firefighting in Legacy Buildings 